Subsurface Soil Investigation for Urban Development: Implication on the Greater-Jos Master Plan, North-Central Nigeria

Volume 10, Issue 1, February 2026     |     PP. 1-28      |     PDF (954 K)    |     Pub. Date: April 1, 2026
DOI: 10.54647/geosciences170373    15 Downloads     137 Views  

Author(s)

Wazoh, H. N., Department of Geology, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
Daku, S. S., Department of Geology, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
Mancha, P. S., Department of Geology, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
Christopher, N., Department of Geology, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
Waziri, S. H., Department of Geology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria
Mallo, S. J., Deparment of Mining Engineering, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria

Abstract
The stability of engineering structures fundamentally depends on understanding subsurface conditions, particularly in reclaimed mined-out areas where ground instability persists. This study investigates subsurface soil characteristics within the Greater-Jos Master Plan area to provide critical subsurface data for sustainable urban development. Integrated geological mapping, 75 vertical electrical soundings (VES), and geotechnical analysis of 38 soil samples were conducted. The area is underlain by Jos-Bukuru Complex rocks (predominantly biotite granites) with lateritised Older Basalts. Resistivity values ranged from 29–2802 Ωm for topsoil (0.5–8.8m thick) and 103.20–891.51 Ωm for weathered layers (1.90–46.60m thick), with overburden thickness varying from 1.2–87.9m. Geotechnical analysis revealed low to medium plasticity (plasticity index 7.4–21.1%), low to medium swelling potential, and variable shear strength parameters (friction angle 12–43°; cohesion 0–41 kN/m²). Based on integrated resistivity and geotechnical characterisation, the study area was delineated into low (2.6%), moderate (63.2%), and high (34.2%) competence zones. Consequently, the resistivity values are seen as strong determinants of the subsurface condition thereby characterising the study area into low, moderate and high competent zones. The geologic/lithologic classification of each layer based on this characterisation has shown that the clayey material encountered is incompetent for engineering purpose. The weathered layer and laterite are rated moderately competent while the fresh granite and compact laterite is rated highly competent. These findings provide essential baseline data for foundation design, land-use planning, and sustainable infrastructure development within the Greater Jos Master Plan area. It is recommended that Foundations should be designed to sit comfortably on competent bedrock or by employing suitable foundation methods such as piling to ensure stability of structures.

Keywords
Competence; Greater-Jos Master Plan; Mined-out; Subsurface; Urban Development

Cite this paper
Wazoh, H. N., Daku, S. S., Mancha, P. S., Christopher, N., Waziri, S. H., Mallo, S. J., Subsurface Soil Investigation for Urban Development: Implication on the Greater-Jos Master Plan, North-Central Nigeria , SCIREA Journal of Geosciences. Volume 10, Issue 1, February 2026 | PP. 1-28. 10.54647/geosciences170373

References

[ 1 ] Adagunodo, T. A, Akinoloye, M. K, Sunmonu, L. A, Alzebeokhai, A. P., Oyeyemi, K. D., & Abiodunrin, F. O. (2018). Groundwater exploration in Aaba residential area of Akure, Nigeria. Frontier Earth Science, 6(66), 1–12.
[ 2 ] Adeola, A. J., & Oyebola, A. M. (2016). Mineralogy and geochemistry of the weathering profiles above the basement rocks in Idi-Ayunre and Akure districts, southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Geology, 8(12), 15–29. doi.org/10.5539/jgg.v8n2p15
[ 3 ] Adeola, A. J., & Dada, R. G. (2017). Mineralogy and geochemical trends in lateritic weathering profiles on basement rocks in Awa-Oru Ijebu and its environ, southwestern Nigeria. Global Journal of Geological Sciences, 15, 1–11. doi.org/10.4314/gigs.visi.1.1
[ 4 ] Adeyemi, G. O. (2002). Geotechnical properties of lateritic soil developed over quartz schist in Ishara area Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, 38(1), 65–69.
[ 5 ] Adeyemi, G. O., & Oyediran, A. I. (2004). Subsoil geotechnical investigations of five proposed building sites at the Mini Campus of the Adekunle Ajasin University (Tech. Rep.). Akungba Akoko, Ondo State: Adekunle Univeristy.
[ 6 ] Adeyemo, I. A., & Omosuyi, O. G. (2012). Hydrogeologic, electrical and electromagnetic measurements for geotechnical characterization of foundation beds at Afunbiowo, near Akure, Southwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Science and Technology, 5(20), 17–22.
[ 7 ] Alhassan, M., Mustapha, A. M., & Mesaiyete, E. (2014). Influence of clay mineralogy on plasticity of lateritic soils. Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 11(93),13–21. doi.org/10.9790/1684-11341821
[ 8 ] Amagu, A. C., Eze, S. N., Jun-ichi, K., & Nweke, M. O. (2018). Geological and geotechnical evaluation of gully erosion at Nguza Edda, Afikpo Sub-basin, Southeastern Nigeria. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 8(12), 148-158. Retrieved May 10, 2019, from www.iiste.org
[ 9 ] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM-D2487. (2006). Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes. West Conshohocken: Author. doi.org/10.1520/D2487-00
[ 10 ] Ayodele, M. O., Omoirabor, O., & Adiela, U. P. (2017). An investigation of the relationship between electrical resistiivty (Wenner and Schlumberger arrays) and geotechnical parameters in foundation investigation in Basement Complex area of Iloko, Osun state, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Science, 1(5), 18–23.
[ 11 ] Azam, S., Ito, M., & Chowdhury, R. (2013). Engineering properties of an expansive soil. Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, 199–202. Retrieved June 22, 2019, from https//www.geoengineering.org/index.php/publications/online-library?
[ 12 ] Barth, D. S., & Mason, B. J. (1984). Soil Sampling quality assurance user’s guide (Tech. Rep. No. PB-84-18621). Nevada University, Las Vegas.
[ 13 ] Bolarinwa, A. (2010). Geotechnical properties of major problem soils of Nigeria. Retrieved September 20, 2013, from http://engrdemol.hubpages.com/hub/geotechnical-properties-of-Nigerian-soils.
[ 14 ] Bolarinwa, A., & Ola, S. A. (2016). A review of the major problem soils in Nigeria. FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, 1 (1), 20–25. doi:10.4672/fuoyejet.v1i1.20
[ 15 ] British Standards Institute. (1990). BS 1377-1: Methods of tests for soils for civil engineering purposes. Milton Keynes.
[ 16 ] British Standard Institute. (2000). BS 1377-2: Methods of tests for soils for civil engineering purposes. Milton Keynes.
[ 17 ] British Standard Institute. (2011). BS 772-1: Methods of tests for masonry units’ determination of compressive strength. Milton Keynes.
[ 18 ] Casagrande, A. (1932). Research on the Atterberg Limits of soils, Public Roads, 13(8), 121–36.
[ 19 ] Christodoulias, J. (2015). Engineering properties and shrinkage limit of swelling soils in Greece. Journal of Earth Science and Climate Change, 6(5), 1–6. doi.org/10.4172/2157-7617.1000279
[ 20 ] Chuwkuma, R. C. (2010). Geotechnical properties of reclaimed mine out land sites: a case study of Jos and environs, Sheet 168NE and SE. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Jos, Jos.
[ 21 ] Craig, R. F. (2004). Craig’s Soil mechanics (7th ed.). London: Spon Press.
[ 22 ] Dafalla, A. M. (2013). Effects of clay and moisture content on direct shear tests for clay-sand mixtures. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. 2013, 1–8. doi.org/10.1155/2013/562726
[ 23 ] Daku, S. S., & Igwe, (2024). Characterization of mine spoils for the reclamation of degraded lands of the Jos-Bukuru tin field, central Nigeria. Journal of Nigeria Society of Physical Sciences, 6, 1 – 14. doi:10.46481/jnsps.2024.1921
[ 24 ] Daniel, D. E. (1993). Clay liners. In D.E. Daniel (Ed.), Geotechnical practice for waste disposal (pp.131–163). London: Chapman and Hall.
[ 25 ] Ejeh, O. I., & Ugbe, C. F. (2010). Fracture systems in the Younger Granite rocks around Fobur, Northern Nigeria: Product of residual stress? Global Journal of Geological Sciences, 8(1), 57–64.
[ 26 ] Government of Plateau State. (2009). Greater Jos Master Plan. Jos.
[ 27 ] Idornigie, A. I., & Olorunfemi, M. O. (1992). A Geoelectric mapping of the basement structure of the South-Central part of Bida Basin and its hydrogeophysical implications. Journal of Mining and Geology, 28(1), 93–103.
[ 28 ] Idornigie, A. I, Olorunfemi, M. O., & Omitogun, A. A. (2006). Electrical resistivity determination of subsurface layers, subsoil competence and soil corrosivity at an engineering site location in Akungba-Akoko, Southwestern Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science, 8(2), 159–177.
[ 29 ] Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS) -3.3. (2005). -Remote sensing and GIS Software. Netherlands: Faculty of Geo-information and Earth Observation (ITC).
[ 30 ] Interpex Limited. (2002). Resistivity modeling software- IXID 2.06. Colorado, USA.
[ 31 ] Lar, U. A., Wazoh, H. N., Mallo, S. J., & Chup, A. S. (2011). Geotechnical characterization of lateritics soils in Jos and Environs. Nigerian Mining Journal, 9(1), 7–17.
[ 32 ] Mallo, S.J. (2007). Minerals and Mining on the Jos Plateau. Jos: ACON Publishers.
[ 33 ] Mallo, S. J., & Wazoh, H. N. (2014). Reclamation of abandoned mined-out areas of Bukuru- Rayfield. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 8(2), 25–34.
[ 34 ] MacLeod, W. N (1971). The Jos-Bukuru Complex. Geological Survey of Nigeria, Bulletin, 2(32), 67–84.
[ 35 ] Milson, J. (2003). Field geophysics, the field guide series. London: John Willey and Sons Limited.
[ 36 ] National Centre for Remote Sensing [NCRS]. (2005). Drainage Map. Nigeria.
[ 37 ] Nigeria Geological Survey Agency. (2012). Geological Map. Nigeria.
[ 38 ] Obermeier, S. F., & Langer, W. H (1986). Relationship between geology and engineering characteristics of soils and weathered rocks of Fairfax County and Vicinity, Virginia. (Tech. Rep. No. 1344). U. S. Geological Survey. doi.org/10.3133/pp1344
[ 39 ] Odunfa, S. O., Owolabi, A. O., Aiyedun, P. O., & Sadiq, Q. M. (2018). Geotechnical assessment of pavement failures along Lagos-Ibadan express way. FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, 3(2), 114–117.
[ 40 ] Odunuga, S., & Badru, G. (2015). Landcover Change, land surface temperature, surface albedo and topography in the Plateau Region of North-Central Nigeria. Land, 4(2), 300 – 324.
[ 41 ] Ofomola, M. O., Iserhien-Emekeme, R. E., Okocha, I. O., & Adeoye, T. O. (2018). Evaluation of subsoil competence for foundation studies at site III of the Delta state University, Nigeria. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, 15(3), 638-657. doi:10.3390/land4020300.
[ 42 ] Okagbue, H. I., Iroham, C. O., Peter, N. J., Owolabi, J. D., Adamu, P. I., & Opanya, A. A. (2018). Systematic review of building failure and collapse in Nigeria. International Journal of Civil Enginering and Technology, 9(10), 1391–1401.
[ 43 ] Olayanju, G. M. (2011). Engineering geophysical investigation of a flood zone: A case study of Alaba Layout, Akure, southwestern. Nigeria Journal of Geology and Mining Resource, 3(8), 193–200.
[ 44 ] Olorunfemi, M.O., & Okhue, E. J. (1992). Hydrogeologic and geologic significance of geo-elelctric survey at Ile-Ife. Nigerian Journal of Mining Geology, 28(2), 221–229.
[ 45 ] Olorunfemi, M. O., Idoringie, A. I., Coker, A. T. A., & Babadiya, G. E. (2004). The application of the electrical resistivity method in foundation failure investigation. Global Journal of Geological sciences, 2, 39–51.
[ 46 ] Osinubi, K. J., Eberemu, A. O., Bello, A. O., & Adzegah, A. (2012). Effect of fines content on the engineering properties of reconstituted lateritic soils in waste contaminant application. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 3(3), 277–287.
[ 47 ] Oyeyemi, K. D., Olofinnade, O. M., Aizebeokhai, A. P., A. P., Sanuade, O. A. Oladunjoye, M. A., Ede, A. N.,… Ayara, W. A. (2020). Geoengineering site characterization for foundation integrity assessment. Congent Engineering, 7(1), 1–16. doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2020.111684
[ 48 ] Reinhard, K. (2006). Groundwater geophysics, a tool for hydrogeology text book. Berlin, Heideberg, New York: Springer international publishing.
[ 49 ] Reynolds, J. M. (1998). An introduction to applied and environmental geophysics. New York, NY: John Willey and Sons LTD.
[ 50 ] Satelite Pour L’Observation De La Terre [SPOT]. (2001). Satellite Imagery. Toulouse, France: CNES.
[ 51 ] Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). (2019). Version 7.
[ 52 ] Ubido, E. O., Igwe, O., Ukah, B. U., & Idris, I. G. (2017). The implication of subsoil geology in foundation failure using geotechnical methods: a case study of Lagos southwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Advanced Research & Publications, 1(5), 165 – 174.
[ 53 ] Ural, N. (2018). The importance of clay in geotechnical engineering: current topics in the utilization of clay in industrial and medical application. Intech Open, 8–102. doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75817
[ 54 ] Vincent, E., Dominic, P., & Kure, M. M. (2020). Assessment of geotechnical parameters of lateritc soil of Jos and environs, for civil engineering constructions North central part of Nigeria. Nigerian Annals of Pure and Applied Science, 3(3), 222–239.
[ 55 ] Wazoh, H. N. (2017). Compaction behaviour and classification properties of soils of Kwang/Shen, Jos-Plateau, North-central Nigeria. Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science Studies, 3(2), 1405–1408.
[ 56 ] Wazoh, H. N., & Mallo, S. J. (2021). Implications of the engineering geological properties of soils in the implementation of the Greater Jos Master Plan, North Central Nigeria. European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research, 6(5), 118–128.